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 全國夏季學院英語寫作: 上課用書

Longman academic writing series 4: Paragraphs to essays (5th ed.)

Oshima, A., Hogue, A., & Ravitch, L. (2014). Longman academic writing series 4: Paragraphs to essays (5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

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  the format of academic writing

Title Page: Includes the title of the paper, the author's name, institutional affiliation, course name/number, instructor's name, and the date.
Abstract: A concise summary of the main points and findings of the paper.
Introduction: Presents the topic, establishes the context, and outlines the research question or thesis statement.
Literature Review: Reviews relevant literature and provides background information to support the study.
Methodology: Describes the research methods used, including the study design, data collection, and analysis procedures.
Results: Presents the findings of the research in a clear and organized manner, often using tables, graphs, or charts.
Discussion: Analyzes and interprets the results, discusses their implications, and relates them to the research question.
Conclusion: Summarizes the key findings and may suggest areas for further research.
References (or Works Cited): Lists all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
Appendices: Includes additional materials that supplement the main text, such as raw data, questionnaires, or supplementary information.
In-text Citations: Acknowledges sources within the text, following the chosen citation style.

 APA :  Standard Format:

• (Author's Last Name, Year)

• (Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page Number)

• Example:

  • (Smith, 2019)
  • (Johnson & Brown, 2020, p. 45)
  •  

 quotation 

"Imagination is more important than knowledge." - Albert Einstein

"Whatever you are, be a good one." - Abraham Lincoln

"Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less." - Marie Curie

"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world." - Nelson Mandela

"The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only a page." - Saint Augustine

 topic sentence

A topic sentence is a crucial element in academic and expository writing as it sets the tone for a paragraph and provides a clear focus. It should be an opinion not a fact.

Clear and Concise: A topic sentence should be clear and to the point. It presents the main idea of the paragraph in a concise manner, avoiding unnecessary details.
Main Idea: The topic sentence should convey the main idea or point of the paragraph. It serves as a guide for the reader to understand the purpose of the upcoming discussion.
Specificity: A good topic sentence is specific and focused. It narrows down the subject to a particular aspect or angle that will be explored in the paragraph.
Transition: In some cases, a topic sentence may include a transition from the previous paragraph or idea, helping to create a smooth flow of thought in the overall text.
Connection to Thesis or Main Idea of the Essay: The topic sentence should relate to the thesis statement or main idea of the essay. It helps maintain coherence and ensures that each paragraph contributes to the overall argument.
Controlling Idea: The topic sentence often contains a controlling idea that governs the content of the paragraph. It establishes the framework for the supporting details that follow.

 concluding sentence 

Concluding a paragraph effectively is crucial for providing closure and summarizing the main points.

Restate the Main Idea: Begin your conclusion by restating the main idea or thesis statement of the paragraph. This helps reinforce the key point you've been discussing.
Summarize Key Points: Summarize the key points or supporting details you've presented in the paragraph. Concisely remind the reader of the information you've covered.
Synthesize Information: Connect the ideas presented in the paragraph and show how they relate to each other. This helps create a sense of cohesion and unity.
Provide a Transition: If your paragraph is part of a larger piece of writing, use the conclusion to provide a smooth transition to the next paragraph or section.
Offer a So What? or Why It Matters Statement: Explain the significance of the information you've presented. Why is it important? How does it contribute to the overall message or argument?

Avoid Introducing New Information:A conclusion is not the place to introduce new ideas or information. Keep it focused on summarizing and synthesizing what has already been discussed.

  the logical structures that you can use to organize your ideas in writing.

1. Chronological Order:

   • Organizing information in chronological order means presenting events, actions, or ideas in the order in which they occur in time. This structure is effective for narratives, historical accounts, and any content that involves a sequence of events.

   Example: A historical essay about the American Civil War might follow a chronological order, discussing events from the beginning to the end of the war.

2.  

3. Dichotomy or Compare and Contrast:

   • Organizing information through dichotomy involves presenting two contrasting ideas, concepts, or elements. This structure is effective when you want to highlight differences or similarities between two things.

   Example: A compare and contrast essay might examine the differences and similarities between traditional education and online learning.

4.  

5. Spatial Order:

   • Spatial order organizes information based on physical location or arrangement in space. This structure is useful when describing a physical space, giving directions, or discussing the layout of an object.

   Example: Describing the layout of a city by discussing different neighborhoods from north to south or east to west.

6.  

7. Order of Importance:

   • Organizing information by order of importance involves presenting ideas from the most significant to the least significant or vice versa. This structure is effective for persuasive writing or when you want to emphasize key points.

   Example: Writing an essay about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle and organizing the points from the most crucial (e.g., overall well-being) to the least crucial (e.g., specific dietary tips).

8.  

9. Problem-Solution:

   • This structure presents a problem and then discusses one or more solutions. It is commonly used in persuasive and argumentative writing.

   Example: Discussing the problem of pollution in a city and proposing solutions such as stricter environmental regulations and increased public awareness.

1. Cause and Effect:

   • The cause and effect organizational pattern explores the relationship between events, actions, or phenomena by examining the reasons (causes) and the outcomes or consequences (effects). This structure helps to illustrate how one event leads to another and can be useful in explaining complex relationships.

   Example: Writing an essay on the causes and effects of climate change, where you discuss factors such as deforestation (cause) leading to rising global temperatures and altered weather patterns (effects).

2.  

3. Compare and Contrast:

   • The compare and contrast organizational pattern involves examining the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. This structure is useful for highlighting the characteristics or features that make subjects alike or distinct.

   Example: Writing a compare and contrast essay on traditional education in a classroom setting versus online education. You would discuss similarities (e.g., both provide educational content) and differences (e.g., one involves face-to-face interaction, while the other is conducted online).

  starting a sentence that provides context or relevance to your topic.

1. Introduction with Context:

   • Provide a brief introduction or context for the definition or quote before presenting it. This helps the reader understand why the definition or quote is relevant to the discussion.

   Example: "In the realm of psychology, resilience is often defined as 'the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties.' This concept becomes particularly significant when examining how individuals cope with adversity."

2. Lead-In Phrase:

   • Use a lead-in phrase that signals the introduction of a definition or quote. This can be a phrase that prepares the reader for the upcoming information.

   Example: "According to Webster's Dictionary, resilience is defined as..."

3. Signal Words:

   • Use signal words or phrases that indicate you are about to present a definition or quote. These can include words like "as," "defines," "in other words," or "according to."

   Example: "In other words, the term 'biodiversity' refers to..."

4. Attribution:

   • Attribute the definition or quote to its source, providing credibility and acknowledging the origin of the information.

   Example: "Renowned philosopher Aristotle once remarked, 'Excellence is an art won by training and habituation.'"

5. Setting the Tone:

   • Set the tone for the sentence by explaining the importance of the definition or quote in relation to your overall argument or thesis.

   Example: "To grasp the significance of this cultural phenomenon, consider the definition of 'zeitgeist,' a term often used to capture the spirit of a particular time or era."

  An essay consists of three main parts: the introduction, body, and conclusion.

1. Introduction:

   • Purpose: The introduction serves to introduce your topic to the reader, provide necessary background information, and present your thesis statement.
   • Key Elements:
     • Hook: Engage the reader with a compelling opening sentence or hook that grabs attention.
     • Background Information: Provide context or background information to help the reader understand the topic.
     • Thesis Statement: Clearly state the main point or argument of your essay, which you will support in the body paragraphs.
     • In the stronger thesis, the claim is specific, debatable, takes a clear position, and provides a preview of the main points that will be discussed in the essay.
     •  
     • Blueprint or Roadmap: Briefly outline the main points or structure of the essay, giving the reader an overview of what to expect.

2. Body:

   • Purpose: The body of the essay elaborates on and supports the thesis statement with evidence, examples, and detailed analysis.
   • Key Elements:
     • Topic Sentences: Each paragraph in the body begins with a topic sentence that introduces the main idea of that paragraph.
     • Supporting Details: Provide evidence, examples, data, or quotes to support and illustrate each main point.
     • Analysis and Explanation: Analyze and explain how the supporting details relate to the thesis statement and contribute to your overall argument.
     • Transitions: Use transitions between paragraphs to ensure a smooth flow of ideas and maintain coherence.

3. Conclusion:

   • Purpose: The conclusion wraps up the essay by summarizing key points, restating the thesis, and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
   • Key Elements:
     • Restatement of Thesis: Revisit and restate your thesis statement, but avoid simply copying it verbatim.
     • Summary of Main Points: Summarize the main points discussed in the body paragraphs.
     • Synthesis: Connect the ideas presented in the essay and demonstrate how they collectively support your thesis.
     • Final Thoughts or Implications: Conclude with final thoughts, implications, or considerations related to the topic.
     • Closing Statement: End the essay with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

 in text citation 

reporting words :

Argue
Claim
Demonstrate
Emphasize
Explain
Highlight
Illustrate
Indicate
Note
Outline
Present
Report
State
Suggest

 Paraphrasing is the act of expressing someone else's ideas or information in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Proper paraphrasing is important for avoiding plagiarism and demonstrating your understanding of a source.

 Summarizing involves condensing the main ideas of a text or passage into a concise and clear representation.

  Block organization is a method of organizing information in a written document where related content is grouped together in distinct blocks or sections.

I. Introduction

• Begin with an introductory paragraph that provides background information and introduces the main topic or thesis statement.

II. Body

• The body of the document is divided into distinct blocks, each focusing on a specific aspect or subtopic. Each block contains its own set of ideas, evidence, or arguments. The order of the blocks can vary based on the writer's preferences or the nature of the content.

1. Block 1:

   • Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the first block.
   • Supporting Details: Provide evidence, examples, or analysis related to the first block's main idea.
   • Transition: Include a transitional sentence that smoothly connects the first block to the next.

2. Block 2:

   • Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the second block.
   • Supporting Details: Provide evidence, examples, or analysis related to the second block's main idea.
   • Transition: Include a transitional sentence that smoothly connects the second block to the next.

3. Block 3:

   • Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the third block.
   • Supporting Details: Provide evidence, examples, or analysis related to the third block's main idea.
   • Transition: Include a transitional sentence that smoothly connects the third block to the next.

• Continue this pattern for additional blocks, depending on the complexity of your document.

III. Conclusion

• Summarize the main points discussed in each block and restate the overall thesis or main idea. Provide a sense of closure and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

  Chain organization, also known as chronological order or sequential order, is a method of organizing information in a written document where events, actions, or steps are presented in a linear sequence. This approach is often used when describing processes, historical events, or any series of events that unfold over time

I. Introduction

• Begin with an introductory paragraph that provides context for the chronological sequence and introduces the main topic or purpose.

II. Body

• The body of the document follows a sequential order, presenting events or steps in the order in which they occurred. Each section focuses on a specific event, action, or time period.

1. Section 1: cause 1 to effect 1

   • Introduction: Provide an introduction to the first event or step in the sequence.
   • Description: Describe the details of the first event or step.
   • Significance: Explain the significance or relevance of the first event.

2. Section 2: cause 2 to effect 2

   • Introduction: Provide an introduction to the second event or step.
   • Description: Describe the details of the second event or step.
   • Significance: Explain the significance or relevance of the second event.

3. Section 3: cause 3 to effect 3

   • Introduction: Provide an introduction to the third event or step.
   • Description: Describe the details of the third event or step.
   • Significance: Explain the significance or relevance of the third event.

• Continue this pattern for subsequent sections, maintaining the chronological order.

III. Conclusion

• Summarize the key events, actions, or steps presented in chronological order. Reflect on the significance of the entire sequence and provide a conclusion that ties back to the main purpose or topic.