筆記: Learning theories (Schunk)－我就喜歡這樣的妳

Learning principles and approaches

Teachers in order to developing effective materials requires an undertanding and appreciation of the learning priciples

Learning theories

1. behavioral psychology principles 20th

operant conditioning https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpDmRc8-pyU

reinforcement: increasing the rate of responding

reinforcer: any stimulus or event following a response that leads to response strengthening (can not be determined in advance)

schedules of reinforcement:

- a continuous schedule

an intermittent schedule

an interval schedule

a ratio schedule

pedagogical application

Instruction system design: meet the need of developing a larger amount of effectiveinstruction that would promote mastery learning.

1. 教學系統設計，在以系統化的方法，分析、設計、製作、執行及評鑑教學過程，以達到有效教學的目的。以下分別說明上述五個階段的內涵。　　

(1)分析教學需求：本階段的主要工作，在以需求評量(needs assessment)為手段，找出理想和現實間的差距，並據以訂定應該教授何種知識、技能和態度。　　

(2)設計教學方式：本階段的首要工作，在依學習者需求及課程內容特色，訂定明確的學習目標及內容架構圖，以做為設計教材、選擇教法和評量成效的標準。因此，在這個階段完成時，將有完整的課程發展藍圖。　　

(3)發展教學教材：教材內容包括講師手冊、學生手冊、教學媒體、及學習成就評量工具。它的發展與製作，有時需要外聘專家及媒體專家的參與。在教材正式推出前，最好先實施「形成性評鑑」(formative evaluation)，以修正不盡合宜之處。

(4)執行教學活動：是驗證及實現以上三階段工作成果的時刻。為使教學活動能夠順利推行，必須要有充分的教學支援。同時教師亦要能彈性、靈活地修正教材，以因應臨場偶發的狀況。　　

(5)評鑑教學成效：在教學結束後，進行總結性評鑑(summative evaluation)，做為改進下次教學的依據。

2. Mastery learning:

it is an instructional strategy and educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968.Mastery learning maintains that students must achieve a level of mastery (e.g., 90% on a knowledge test) in prerequisite knowledge before moving forward to learn subsequent information. If a student does not achieve mastery on the test, they are given additional support in learning and reviewing the information and then tested again. This cycle continues until the learner accomplishes mastery, and they may then move on to the next stage.

Mastery learning methods suggest that the focus of instruction should be the time required for different students to learn the same material and achieve the same level of mastery. This is very much in contrast with classic models of teaching that focus more on differences in students' ability and where all students are given approximately the same amount of time to learn and the same set of instructions.

3. Successive approximation

連續漸進法是訓練個人達成所期望的特定行為時，以特定行為為終點行為。為達成此終點行為，必須以已有的行為當做起點行為，把自起點行為至終點行為之間必要的行為反應依序分析排列，然後適時對個體所表現的正確反應給予增強，使能逐步做到，且漸漸接近終點行為的反應。此種養成新行為的方式稱為行為塑造(shaping)，亦稱連續漸進法或漸次接近法。

施金納(B.F. Skinner)在一九五三年曾用這個方法來訓練鴿子抬頭的反應，使鴿子的頭越抬越高。現在的行為改變技術也常使用這種方法。

skinner's mouse and pigeon https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NeK8GNLylkc

在新行為的塑造過程中，為使連續漸進法確實有效，需注意下列要點：　　

1.要有明確的目標行為來做終點行為。　　

2.從舊行為中找出適當的行為作訓練時的起點行為。　　

3.把從起點行為至終點行為之間必要的行為反應分析排列，以便依次增強。　　

4.對於每一階段新養成的行為要多加增強，無關的行為則予以消弱。　　

5.在連續漸進的過程中，如果某一反應的塑造有困難，就須退回一至兩步，重新做起。　　

6.透過像這樣的循序漸進過程，一步一步增強，直到所期望的目標行為出現而且穩固為止。

2. social cognitive theory (Albert bandura)

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

3. cognitive psychology principles

cognitivism is about understanding the processes that take place in the brain, for example perception, attention, decision-making processes, problem solving, language.

Humans are viewed as biological machines that absorb, process, store, and use information. In the image of this metaphor, the goal of cognitivism is to investigate the functioning and regularities of this biological machine.

cognitive psychology is in charge of knowing what ideas arise in the patient’s mind and how these influence their emotional and behavioral response – how they feel and what they do about it.

Information processing theory

Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that aims to explain how information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do not merely respond to stimuli from the environment. Instead, humans process the information they receive. While experts believe that the brain’s mechanisms and functions are relatively simple, the magnitude and scope of neural networks and their behaviors are quite powerful as a whole (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003).

These include how the brain processes information. Information processing theory not only explains how information is captured, but how it is stored and retrieved as well (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin, 2019). The process begins with receiving input, also called stimulus, from the environment using various senses. The input is then described and stored in the memory, which is retrieved when needed. The mind or the brain is likened to a computer that is capable of analyzing information from the environment.

Consequently, information processing affects a person’s behavior (Hann, Hui, Lee, & Png, 2007). In the expectancy theory of motivation, an individual processes information about behavior-outcome relationships. Then, they can form expectations based on the information and make decisions.

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model

John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model in 1968 to illustrate their view of human memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1977). The model shows the three subsections of human memory and how they work together.

So, what are the 3 stages of information processing? They are as follows:

Sensory Memory – It holds the information that the mind perceives through various senses such as visual, olfactory, or auditory information. These sense organs often receive a barrage of stimuli all the time. However, most are ignored and forgotten by the mind to prevent getting overwhelmed. When sensory information engages and gets the attention of the mind, it is transferred to short-term memory.
Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) – Information in short-term memory only lasts around 30 seconds. Cognitive abilities affect how individuals process information in working memory. Additionally, attention and focus on the most important information also play an important role in encoding it into long-term memory. Furthermore, repetition significantly helps the ability to remember details for a long time.
Long-Term Memory – It is thought that long-term memory has an unlimited amount of space as it can store memories from a long time ago to be retrieved at a later time. Various methods are used to store information in the long-term memory such as repetition, connecting information, relating information to meaningful experience or other information, and breaking up the information into smaller chunks.

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1977). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Human Memory, 7-113.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-121050-2.50006-5

Baddeley and Hitch Model of Working Memory

Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed the model of working memory back in 1974. They provided an in-depth understanding of the mind and how it processes information. Four more elements are added to further illustrate the information processing theory (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005), namely:

Central executive – It is considered the control center of the mind where information processes are regulated between various memory stores. It controls and implements the cognitive processes that encode and retrieve information. Additionally, the central executive receives information from the visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop. The frontal lobe of the brain is thought to house the central executive, as this is where all active decisions are processed.
Phonological loop – It works closely with the central executive and holds auditory information. Furthermore, it is composed of two sub-components:
- Phonological store – It holds auditory information for a short period.
- Articulatory rehearsal process – It stores the information for longer periods of time through rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019).
Visuospatial sketch pad – It is considered another part of the central executive that holds spatial and visual information. It helps the mind imagine objects and maneuver through the environment.
Episodic buffer – Baddeley later added the fourth element of the model, which also holds information. It increases the capability of the mind to store information. He believed that the episodic buffer transfers information between short-term memory, perception, and long-term memory. As it is still relatively new, research is still conducted as to its specific mechanisms (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005).